Defenders of sporting values have argued strongly against George Orwell’s claim that:‘Serious sport…is bound up with hatred…it is war minus shooting.’ They claim that sport is a medium through which personal virtues of altruism, endeavour and dignified sportsmanship are demonstrated.
However, it cannot be denied there is some truth in Orwell’s statement. It may be that when sport becomes serious at elite levels, athletes become less ethical in their approach. Nicholls contends in the journal Sports Psychologist (1999) that:
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